On the Roman Limes 100 – 450

The Great Empires

During the Roman period there were two other major empires . The Persian Empire immediately to the east of the Romans and throughout the period they remained a balancing power. Further to the east the Chinese Empire, however this wasn’t as warlike as the other two and concentrated largely on its internal economic and governance affairs. In between lay India (sometimes including what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan) however, they never evolved into an empire  similar to China or Rome..

After their own violent centuries, during Roman times they had built up an unrivaled bureaucratic system that kept their large area rather peaceful and under control. There was occasional official  contact between the Roman and Chinese Empires but the main contact was trade (in particular silk), whereby the the Parthians and the Persians were the main middlemen. Also the nomadic dessert tribes profited from this trade through raids and protection money – it has been mentioned that the Huns evolved from these tribes.  It were these Huns that created both havoc in the Roman and the Chines Empire. It was probably the relentless  pursuit of the Huns under the Chinese Emperor Wu Du that saw the start of the Huns moving further west. They followed earlier east-west migrations that had been taken place during the previous 2,000 years, using the endless steppes that made travelling through this region a relative easy expedition.  The Huns were probably the most formidable of all the barbarian nations, whoever stood in their way, eventually had to make way and move on for them; 2,000 years later their name is still linked to death and destruction.

In the 2nd century the Roman and Chinese Empires had a similar size population of around 60-80 million people, together they accounted for roughly half of the global population.

The Sumerians (6000 – 2000BCE) were the first to establish true  city states  in  Mesopotamia (Iraq). Most likely because of over exploitation of the land, salinity occurred and this led to the decline of city states and the center of power started to move northwards. Over exploitation of natural resources would from this time onwards be a permanent feature of all following agriculture-based  cultures.

The Assyrians started to arrive in the 2nd millennium BCE and their rule lasted til 6th century BCE when the Medes became the ruling power only to be overthrown by the Persian king Cyrus the Great half a century later. It was arguably the largest empire on earth at that time.

It was also during these times that a rather small tribe of hunters and gatherers  settled themselves as farmers in the fertile area in the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Dead Sea, they conquered the local Canaanite people around 900BCE. Two hundred years later they were overrun by the Assyrians and later on by the Babylonians. It briefly had another period of Independence between 141 BCE and70BCE after which the Romans invaded their lands and established here the Province of Palestine. Two thousand years later their 3rd period of independence starter after the State of Israel was formed in 1948.

Many wars and conflicts were fought out there were East meet West. Already during Greek times such clashes were evident, perhaps starting with battle of Troy. More formal clashes followed  with the Persians (under the leadership of Cyrus the Great and Xerxes the Great) he undertook two major military campaigns into Greece; but they lost them both.

Alexander the Great made the largest inroads into the East, nearly reaching the Chinese boarder. But after his death his Empire crushed but the various conquered territories remained under Hellenistic influence in some cases  for centuries to come. Often led by Greeks settling in these new territories, this was a period of great freedoms in travel, personal expression and religious tolerance. Alexandria in Egypt – named after Alexander became the leading city in the world with it enormous library and its famous lighthouse, until the Eiffel Tower was built it had been the tallest building ever built. With free travel this also was the period that Indians started to travel and brought Buddhism to the West.

Back to Persia where the Parni tribe (south-east of the Caspian Sean) gradually established the Parthian Empire (247BCE – 224AC) by replacing the Greek influence (Seleucids)  in the regions. However, they retained large parts of the Hellenistic structures. They were able to control the very lucrative Silk Road and this became the major income of the Empire. When the Parthians expanded further west (Armenia) the clashed with the Romans and several Parthian wars severely weakened the Parthians. This played into the hands of internal rivals and in 224 the Parthians were overthrown and replaced buy the Sassanids.

The greatly expanded the empire  encompassing all of today’s Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, the Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Dagestan), southwestern Central Asia, part of Turkey, certain coastal parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf area, and areas of southwestern Pakistan, even stretching into India.

The Persian Empire came to a very abrupt end when it was completed destructed by the armies of the Islam between and 646 and  651.

At this time what is now north-western Europe was a backwater. The colder and wetter weather made it more difficult to grow the sort of commercial crops that were so readily available around the Mediterranean. In comparison to  the lifestyle that they enjoyed the Germanic tribes did it much tougher and was more or less the developing world of their times. The Romans arrived in this region not for commercial gains but for military reasons.

Romans arriving

Low Countries during Roman times

What started as a small agriculture community around 1,000BCE grew into one of the most powerful empires the world has even seen. Legend has it that Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome in 753BCE. After the influence of their overlords the  Etruscans started to wane, the Latin and Sabini tribes seized the opportunity to take control over their tribal regions.  By the end of the 3rd century BCE they were in control of most of Italy and had started to establish colonies around the Mediterranean,  similar to those established by Greek and Phoenician colonist. (See video clip Roman times in Israel). This led to several clashes (e.g. Punic Wars) with their rivals. During the 2nd century BCE they conquered all of the Greek and Phoenician colonies as well as their homelands, they also defeated the Persians during that period. All of this was done in very brutal, destructive and even sadistic ways. Roman family entertainment was looking at people being killed in the arena by wild beats or gladiators fighting each other to death.

If they lost a battle they indiscriminately killed one in ten of their own soldiers. Striking terror both amongst their own troops as well as amongst the people they conquered was their idea of warfare.

Their destruction of  Carthage (149BCE)  was one of the most cruel battles ones ever conducted, before they started to move their attention further northwards.

It was not until the 1^st century BCE that the Roman Empire extended its reach to what became known as the province of Gaul. This was done here, as elsewhere, through brute power.

In 101-102 BCE Gaius Marius defeated in this way the Cimbri and Teutones, Germanic war bands who were raiding what is now southern France and started to cross into northern Italy. This brought the Romans in action and they defeated these tribes who were also increasingly making the lucrative trade between Rome and Gaul difficult, in the end the Romans just decided to conquer the whole area.

They used the Roman city of Massalia (Marseille) as their starting point and from here the corridor of the river Rhone to push further north By 120 BCE the province of Gallia Transalpina started to take shape.

As much as possible they tried to take control though peace agreements. Moving further north this also brought them into contact with the Germanic tribes. The initial interaction between these tribes and the Romans was very violent. During the many Roman expeditions into this area as well as during subsequent revolts hundreds of thousands of Germanic warriors were killed and their families slaughtered even larger numbers were captured as slaves for the insatiable demand for slaves in Rome and other Roman cities.

Tribes were sometimes annihilated to near extinction; such as we will see below was the case with the Eburones in 56- 59BCE.

While estimates are very difficult to verify of the estimated 300 tribes with 4 million people living in Gaul, a quarter was killed and another quarter taken into slavery; 800 settlements were also annihilated.

The Roman General Julius Caesar mentioned that they were highly mobile and they didn’t have any permanent ‘oppida’ (settlements). This also made it very difficult for the Romans to attack these tribes as they simply vanished in the wilderness.

While their warriors were recognised, Caesar and also Tacitus didn’t use a similar praising language when they wrote about the Germanic farmers. Instead they wrote that their agriculture was not particular advanced and also their cattle was smaller than theirs. Land was held by the tribe and on annual bases distributed to family clans. In this way no group could at any time create wealth by occupying the most fertile lands.

Instead status was acquired through bravery, similar to the descriptions of the early Celts who entered Italy. Raiding was an integral part of Germanic life and Caesar reports that “raiding is good training for young man and stops them becoming lazy”.

Tacitus also describes a change in tribal societies. He mentions a new form of dual leadership – in Roman language. The rex as he called him was elected for life from amongst a small group of aristocratic households, comprising the royal class. The dux were appointed based on the military valour to lead the army in raids and war. Councils of the elite were held regularly as were general assemblies of warriors who met to debate issues given to them, they didn’t initiate actions themselves.

Eburones, Nervii members of the Belgae alliance

We mentioned the possibility of Eburon people living in northeastern Brabant near the sancuraires along the river Maas.

As we saw above, in Julius Caesar’s ‘Commentarii de Bello Gallico (commentaries on the Gallic wars), the Brabantine wilderness was used by the Germanic and Celtic tribes in northern Gaul during the many hit and run attacks which took place during the Gallic Wars from 58BCE  until 51BCE. Under the personal leadership of Caesar – who had been recently appointed at that time as the provincial governor of northern Italy and southern France – the Romans entered the region with 8 legions (approx 30,000 – 40,000 legionnaires, a few thousand cavalry and further ancillary troops.

The tribes had formed an alliance of some 60,000 well prepared warriors and were named by Caesar the Belgae. Leader of the resistance was the Nervii chief Boduognatus. During the winter of 58BCE, Caesar quartered a legion and five cohorts (one and a half legions) in the country of the Eburones, under the command of his legates, Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta.

The Eburones, headed by their leaders, Ambiorix and Cativolcus, and evidently aided by their allies the Nervii and other tribes, attacked the Roman camp; and after inducing the Romans to leave their stronghold on the promise of a safe passage, they massacred nearly all of them (approximately 6000 men). The legion also lost its standard. (It has been argued that Caesar had it wrong and that the Eburones weren’t Germanic but Celts the names of Ambiorix and Cativolcus would certainly confirm this. This also fits into the picture of the boarder region in Brabant where during Roman times the population is believed to be mainly Celtic).

Keutenberg-Cottaberg

The name of his ‘mountain’ east of Maastricht most probably refers to the above mentioned Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta. Legend has it that is he buried on top of this hill.  Here lived two priestesses, Valeda and her daughter Gronsela, they were in charge of the solar temple (hut) of the Eburones  that was situated here, built over a – still existing – well. One day Cotta met these two ladies and he fell in love with Gronsela. When Cotta died in his battle with Ambiorix, the deeply saddened Gronsela buried him on top of the hill.

Most likely Keutenberg refers to ‘kuit’ (calve), it is the steepest hill in the Netherlands and a climb to the top  makes your calves work. However, since Roman times marl has been mined here.

A further attack on another camp, Velt-Ciceronis (modern day Velzeke), held by Quintus Tullius Cicero, brother of the famous orator, was thwarted by timely intervention of Labienus, one of Caesar’s most trusted generals. The Romans finally defeated the Belgae in 57BCE, of the 60,000 original forces and the Council of 600, only 500 men survived and 3 of their Council leaders.

The final battlefield took place, according to the Bello Gallico near the river Samber, but some historians argue this must have been near Saulzoir on the river Selle. This is close to the current border between France and Belgium. Julius Caesar wrote about the Belgae:

Of all these peoples the Belgae are the most courageous, because they are the most removed from the culture and the civilization of the Province, and least often visited by merchants introducing the commodities that make for effeminacy: and also because they are nearest to the Germans dwelling beyond the Rhenus (Rhine), with whom they are continually at war.

He allowed the survivors to go back to their oppidum (Bavai) and ordered their neighbouring tribes not to attack them. In the following year Caesar himself entered the country of the Eburones, and Ambiorix fled before him and Cativolcus poisoned himself. As we have seen above the country of the Eburones was difficult for the Romans to conquer, being woody and swampy in parts; and utilising the good old Germanic tradition of raiding, Caesar invited the neighbouring people to come and plunder the Eburones, in order to save his own men, and, also, with the aid of great numbers, to exterminate the nation.

The Sicambri were the main raiders. While Caesar was ravaging the country of the Eburones, he left Quintus Tullius Cicero with a legion to protect the baggage and stores, at a place called Aduatuca, which he tells us had been the fatal quarters of Sabinus and Cotta, though he had not mentioned the name of the place before.

He places Aduatuca about the middle of the territory of the Eburones; and there is good reason for supposing that the place is Tongeren. Caesar burnt Aduatuca and every village and building that he could find in the territory of the Eburones, killed 4,000 of their men and drove off some 53,000 survivors and all the cattle, which he sold by auction in one lot.

His men and beasts consumed all the corn that was on their fields and what the war effort and the autumn weather had not yet destroyed. He left those who had hid themselves, if there were any, with the hope that they would all die of hunger in the winter.

Their country was soon occupied by another German tribe, the Tungri. However, the survivors of the original tribe settled further along the Scheldt and many also integrated with the Tungri and with the Batavii. The name Eburon is thought to be eebe and bauer. Eebe = yew (an indigenous conifer), which is the best wood for making bows; yew growth best on sandy soil. Bauer = boer (= farmer). The Latin word for yew is taxus, Toxandria is Latin for the land of yews. The Gaul had a special word for this wood: eburo.

In 49BCE he left Gaul and famously crossed the river Rubicon (near Rimini), which lead to a a civil war what would result in him becoming a dictator. However, he didn’t disband the Senate but shaped it to his liking and extended the size from 600 to 900 members, most of whom close aligned to him.

After Caesar’s assassination by Senator Brutus assisted by Cassius in 44BCE  on the steps of the Senate it took the Romans another 40 years to return and properly annex the tribal lands conquered by this emperor.

Germanic tribes defeat the Romans

Since 7BCE the Roman Viceroy of Germania was Publius Quinctilius Varus. In 9AD he led three Roman legions (approximately 6,000 soldiers each) into war with the Germanic tribes.

One of the most famous battles was the one in the Teutoburg Forest. Here, the Germanic tribal chief Hermann (Arminius), leader of the Cheruscen, tricked the Romans into a narrow valley and they totally annihilated the Romans.

Varus was reported to have committed suicide shortly after this battle. It was until the 1990s that the actual site of the battle was established; the Germanic tribes used an area in the shape of a funnel. On one side the slopes of a hill (Kalkrieser Berg) and on the other side a swamp (Grosses Moor). The German warriors had built an earthen wall with a timber defence system in the forest on the slope from where they attacked the roman legions. In 1999 I visited this site at Kalkriese, near Osnabrück.

Retaliation expeditions

The Romans under Germanicus were looking for revenge and launched two campaigns one in 14CE and another one the following year. They crossed the Rhine at Xanten and trashed the Germanic tribes of the Usipetes, Marsi, Bracteri, Chamavi and Tubanti.

Legend has it that they destroyed the temple of the fertility goddess Tanfana near Oldenzaal, however, historians deny that there ever has been a temple here.

Other attempts to conquer ‘free’ Germania where undertaken in, 15 and 16CE, from Velsen, a temporary Roman port on the North Sea in the Netherlands. From here Roman ships were send to the Weser and the Ems, however while Arminius was defeated the Romans were unsuccessful in annexing the territory into the Empire.

There is however, an increasing level of evidence that the Romans were able to extend their influence all the way to the rivers Ems and Weser, recent excavations have unearthed what might have been Roman fortresses in this area.

Romans establish the boarder

The region below the Lower Rhine was now properly annexed into Gallia Comata (long haired Gaul), with since 15BCE Nijmegen (Ulpia Noviomagus Batavoru) as the major military basis for the region to the west, other castra’s were built in Velsen and Xanten. In 12BCE Drusus troops started the Germanica campaign in Nijmegen.

Ceasar recognised three distinct people in the Gallia: the Belgae (in the north), the Aquitanians (southwest) and the Celts who he called the Gaul (centre).

However, they left the region largely alone for another 40 years. Tiberius also decided to retreat to the river Rhine and from that time onwards they never ventured again into Germania. His successor Caligula – who gained power by the assassination of Tiberius and most of the rest of his family – also ventured north on a quest to conquer Britain  – and around 40CE was at the Roman fortress Lugdunem where he declared victory over the sea and ordered his troops to collect shells as the spoils of war.

His successors indeed did conquer Britain, however, in47CE  Emperor Claudius, officially declared not to move any further north into Germania.

Its military leader Gnaius Domiticus Corbulo – in order to keep the conquered territories in Gaul and Germania occupied – used the troops and the time to built a 35km long canal between the rivers Rhine and Maas. Because of subsequent floods in the Low Countries the original canal has been lost, however historians believe that the current river Vliet between Rotterdam and Leiden might be a remnant of that canal.

In 52CE, soon after the decision to halt further expansion, the Romans also retreated from their frontier position in Velsen. Already around the year 40 they had started a defence castra at the mouth of the Rhine, Praetorium Agrippinae (Valkenburg), some 40 kms to the south of Velsen. There was an estimated 320 men strong infantry and a 60 men strong cavalry.

The so called Roman Limes formed a 5,000 km long e border between the Roman Empire and the Germanic tribes to the north. From 50 onwards the Romans started to build the ‘Lower Germanicus Limes’ from the mouth of the river Rhine (modern day Oude Rhine). From here they built their castras approx 6.5 km apart from each other.

Roman castra

The northern castra and castellum along the Rhine included the North Sea base of Lugdunum (Brittenburg/Katwijk), Praetorium Agrippinae (Valkenburg), Matilo (Leiden), Albaniana (Alphen aan de Rijn), Nigrum Pullum (Zwammerdam), Bodegraven, Laurium (Woerden), Fletio (De Meern), Traiectum (Utrecht), Fectio (Vechten), Levefanum (Rijswijk), Mannaricium (Maurik), Carvo (Kesteren), Randwijk, Driel, Herculis (Arnhem), Duiven, Carvium (Bijlandse Waard). The southern route along the rivers Maas and Waal included: Hadriani (Voorburg), Tablis, Caspingio, Grinnibus (Rossum), Ad Duodecimum, Oppidum Batavorum (Nijmegen), Ceuclum (Cuijk), Blariacum (Blerick), Catualium (Heel) and in Belgium: Feresne (Dilsen), Atuatuca (Tongeren) and Traiectum ad Mosam (Maastricht). Along the coast: Flevum (Velsen), Helinio (Oostvoorne?), Goedereede (?), De Roompot (?), Rodanum (Aardenburg), Maldegem, Oudenburg.

Ceuclum is the only town in Brabant of which the Roman name is known. The current Grotestraat – were Louise’s maternal parents lived – follows the same route as the old Roman road. It was part of the military road from Tongeren via Maastricht to Nijmegen.  The first phase of this settlement (vicus) dates back to between 50-100CE, strategically built on a river dune.  A layer of burned material could indicate that this settlements might have been burned down during the Batavian revolt. The vicus was rebuilt immediately there after – perhaps under Emperor Trajanus, it now also had a castellum.  The above mentioned family house stood actually within the old parameters of the castellum (see videoclip). The vicus flourished until 150CE, but lost in importance after that time. The third phase starts at the start of the 3rd century and by 275 the place is more or less deserted.  The town was built along the road and was approx 600 meters in length (and 40 meters wide). The vicus had houses with workplace and shops as well as two temples. Just outside the town was a large burial site with between 1,000 and 2,000 graves. See also video clip Cuijk.

The Lower Germanicus Limes were abandoned at the same time perhaps a bit earlier in 260CE. Because of the war with Persia and internal civil wars the Legions along the Limes were called back to defend other parts of the Empire. The Limes were now open to the Germanic tribes and there is evidence of violent attacks on the now unprotected Roman farms and settlements.

However, Ceuclum remained an important military communication centre with (since approx 350) a  bridge crossing the river Maas, there were only two other bridges in the Low Countries one was built in the 1st century in Maastricht and perhaps even an earlier one near Venlo.

At the time the Romans rebuilt their castrum in Ceuclum, they also built one in Maastricht. These two militarily outposts were finally abandoned in 402 when the troops were order to move to Italy in order to defend the core of the Empire.

Saalburg on the north Germanic Limes

In 2010 I visited the castrum  Saalburg this was part of the north Germanic Limes in the Taunus. These Limes were operational between 83 and 260AC, after Emperor Domitian had waged a war against the Chatti. The Taunus section covered 153 kms and had 200 watch towers, 35 larges forts and 18 small ones. Saalburg was a larger, so called cohort fortress with an occupation of 500/600 soldiers and was situated a few hundreds meters from the Limes it also had to look after a protected boarder passage. The reconstructed site is part of UNESCO World Heritage. Click here for a video clip of the Roman Limes in the Taunus and the military fortress Saalburg.

What now followed was a period of severe decline of the Empire. After 300 a different defence strategy was deployed involving fewer castras inland from the seashore with rapid cavalry forces that could be deployed when necessary. However, they were not sufficient to stop the many Germanic raids which during the 4^th century became an ongoing event.

Batavii Rebellion

There had been a few smaller rebellions against the Romans by the Frisii in 28 and 47CE, but they were in no comparison to the one that took place in 69CE.

More serious was the attack from the Chaukes in 174, they arrived by sea most probably from Belgica., this might have caused the Romans to start shifting their defence line from the rivers to the coast.

In Nero’s time,s towards the end of his reign, the Roman Empire went through a tumultuous year. During this period some of the Batavii army leaders were falsely accused of an attempt to overthrow the Emperor. One of these high-ranking Batavii, Julius Paullus, (his Roman name), was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion. Another Batavii nobleman and Roman army leader, Gaius Julius Civilis was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted, he was retained at Rome.

After the death of Empire Nero in 69CE, in which there were no less than four rival emperors. Many Roman troops were recalled from their expeditions and within the army there were fractions supporting the various contenders to the throne. During the turmoil Julius Civilis was able to return home.

The anarchy in Rome allowed for the opportunity of widespread uprising especially along the north-western boarders of the Empire. Surprising the Batavii were amongst the first to revolt. They had so far be rather loyal to the Romans, it were most likely the high new taxes that were introduced that triggered the revolt. The revolt was launched by the newly returned Julius Civilis. In order to not to make it look like a rebellion Julius Civilis had proclaimed that he was supporting one the four challengers in Rome the Syrian general Vespasian and he was fighting this battle on his behalf.

He also did send messages to neighbouring tribes such as the Canenefates and the Frisii who happily joined the rebellion. Gallic tribes in the meantime had also joined the overall rebellion.  The start was very successful with the defeat of the Romans in the castras of Katwijk, Nijmegen, Xanten, Mainz and Trier.  Within a few months all Romans had fled the area.

Trouble started when Vespasian surprisingly won the challenge in Rome and became the new Emperor. Julius Civilis and his Germanic and Gallic allies had no inclination to hand their power over to the new Emperor. By 70, new troops were on their way and re-conquered lost territories in Germany. By now there was severe disunity amongst the Batavii and its allies and this made it easy for the Romans to defeat the rebels.

Following the uprising, the famous  Legio decima Gemina (Tenth Twin Legion), was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol was a bull. They occupied the castrum in Novia Magusanus (the Roman name for Donar – venerated by the Batavia) – now Nijmegen –  from 71 to 104 to keep an eye on the Batavians. It was during this period that the castrum received the name: Ulpia Noviomagus Batavoru.

There was already a significant military base (42 hectares) established here in 15BCE and became the most important base for the early military expeditions into Germania such as those in the years 9 and 15/16CE. During the expeditions into Germania there might have been a military strength of around 12,000 men. This was dramatically reduced over the following years. After the rebellion in 69AC an estimated force of 5,000 men occupied the castra.

Romanisation of the region

After the rebellion, the Batavii, once again,  became one of Rome’s most staunch supporters and were praised for their bravery, horsemanship and swimming skills. Before and after the rebellion they fought in the Roman army all over the empire, they were last mentioned as such in 355. After 25 years of service these soldiers would receive Roman citizenship and a small piece of land.

IX Cohort Batavorum

The IX Cohort Batavorum, was led by the Batavian Flavius Ceralis, his family had received Roman citizenship by Emperor Vespasian in the year after the rebellion. In 95 he arrived with 480 Batavii legionnaires at the Roman Fortress Vindolanda (Britain), this later on became part of the Hadrian Wall fortification.  The fortress was built in 92 by the IV Cohort Gaul from modern day Belgium. During excavations of this fortress wooden tablets were discovered with many letters, many of them written by Flavius. They also found correspondence regarding a birthday party invitation  between the wife of Flavius, Sulpicia Lepidina and her sister Claudia Severa the wife of Aelius Brocchus the commander of the next Roman Fortress. This is the oldest known writing of a Roman woman found in Britain. Flavius was ordered in 105 to move to Dacia (modern day Romania) where the Romans fought severe battles with are immortalised on the Trajan column in Rome.

Germania Inferior remained far from Rome and never obtained the same cohesion as the Mediterranean parts of the Empire. Nevertheless Roman rule, law and administration would become an integral part of the Celtic and German tribes who lived in these areas. Also the Roman systems of agriculture and trade were rapidly adopted and integrated in these societies.

As we saw above, once the Romans had subjected the tribes, they started to provide warriors for the Roman armies. This resulted in many locals travelling the than known world. We find them back in Britain in France, Italy and all the way at the Black Sea. This must have made an enormous impact on these people and the stories they brought back with them will have done the rounds for many generations. Many Romans married local women and also many soldiers from the auxiliary (non Roman) legions married local women during their 25 year stint in the Roman army. The more senior officials were able to live on extensive villas and exerting significant local military power. The majority of the villas in our region are situated in Limburg, a few also in Brabant.

Once the Romans had conquered the tribal lands, many of the people saw the advantages of integration with the Roman society as that resulted in increased economic activity and political stability. After the changes implemented since 212 the Romans extended Roman citizenship to all of its inhabitants. Its society became more and more multicultural, not only did we see large number of non-Romans taking up senior positions in the Roman army but increasingly even emperors came from the new Romanised territories. Wealth was equally spread throughout the (top layer) of the Roman society and trade delivered benefits to large sections of the various local societies.

Military camps fuelled the local economy

Another important element of interaction was the fact that these military camps required the supply of large qualities of agriculture and other products. This resulted in an economic boom and attracted many new people to the region. Two kilometres west of Novia Magusanus, a shriving city developed known as Ulpia Noviamagus, it was established soon after the uprising and at its heights in the 2^nd century there might have lived between 3000 and 500 people, but it was abandoned one hundred years later.  Noviamagus means New Market and could well refer to the market rights this city received perhaps to differentiate if from the old Oppidum  (settlement), next to the castra itself, which had been abandoned around 120CE.

Noviamagus received city rights in the 2^nd or 3^rd century and as such received a civil administration based on the Roman model, with council members (decuriones), two burgomasters (in charge of taxes) and Alderman in charge of public works and finances. Its jurisdiction basically compromised the total territory of the Batavii (Civitas Batavorum). The city received one last boost during the 4^th century, after Emperor Julian the Apostate had been able to reestablish order on this norther border,  when a new fort was built at the Valkhof (Falcon Court).

However, after yet another attack in 406, the Romans definitely retreated from this outpost. Also around the other castras, farming and trading communities – the first vici – started to emerge, they might have had a market function, there would have been some trades people and they would also have functioned as religious centres. While the population of these places varied between 260 and 500 people, many of these vici became the first villages were the missionaries tore down local pagan shrines and temples and started to build the first churches during Merovingian and Carolingian times.

Gallo-Roman Temple at Kessel

Just some 10 kms north of Oss is the small village of Kessel, strategically positioned where the rivers Maas and Waal often formed just one river system.  This was the site of one of the largest Gallo-Roman temples in the are. It measured 24×24 meters and stood 6 meters tall. This was larger than the temples on Cuijk and Empel (near Den Bosch) . It was built around 100AC and was dedicated the Roman God Hercules and his  Batavian equivalent Magusanus. The Batavii were a Germanic tribe loyal to the Romans. After the Romans left the area the temple was demolished around 275 and some decades later the building materials were used to built a castellum (fortress) and from this word word the name Kessel evolved.

(See video clip: National Museum Leiden)

While at this time we still see most settlements based on their natural environment, by now also new settlements evolved especially along the military road system, especially at cross roads and river crossings, their existence based on communication and trade.

The more fertile regions of the river valleys in Germania Inferior were used for agriculture, while the less fertile sandy grounds of Toxandria were used for cattle. During Roman times many of the local young men were recruited into the Roman army and this has a significant impact on the local farming communities. During this period there was a shift from agriculture to cattle breeding as that was less labour intensive. The Roman frontier army required large quantities of food, leather, tents, armour, boots, saddles and horse gear, this no doubt did create a ready market for many local produce.

Along the border formal and spontaneous relationships where established between the Romans and the ‘free’ tribes. Roman money also circulated outside the empire as far away as Scandinavia and the Baltic states. Roman trade reached these outer areas, providing amber to an eager Roman market as far away as Rome itself. Semi industrial activity started to evolve in these regions around salt mining, building materials, pottery, etc. There obviously also started to develop an economic dependence, this became very clear after the collapse of Roman empire, when both free and previously occupied parts of Europe entered the period of the Dark Ages. Click here for a video clip of the Roman Limes in the Taunus and the military fortress Saalburg.

Golden helmet in the peel

The Peel helm known as the Golden Helmet, is made of thin gilded silver. The helmet is very fragile and it can hardly have been used in battle, because it would have been useless as protection for the head. Its style is clearly one of Roman military helmets and the inscription incised in it confirms this observation. It says that the helmet “was made by Marcus Titus Lunamis, using nearly 370 grammes of silver sheets. Its owner belonged to the sixth cavalry unit of the Equites Stablesiani. On the right side of the helmet cap it says Stablesia VI”. The helmet was found with some other objects, among which were coins dated from 315 to 319 AD. So the disposition of the helmet in the swamp of the Peel (the name of the region) probably took place in or shortly after the year 319 AD. We do not know exactly why the helmet was deposited in the swamp in the Peel. At that time the area must have been difficult to cross and even for Roman soldiers it might not have been a safe place to go through. For a long time the prevailing hypothesis was that a Roman soldier left the army at the Rhine after successfully serving in it for many years. As a farewell gift he was given the Golden Helmet, but in the Peel swamp he drowned and his precious possessions sank away to be buried for the next 1600 years. Recently, another hypothesis was put forward. It could be that the helmet, and the accompanying objects, was in fact ritually deposited as a thanksgiving to the Gods since its owner had successfully completed his military service. (See video clip: National Museum Leiden)

 

Oss a settlement on the Roman Limes

With the influence of the Romans increasing in Europe, massive social and economic changes occurred in the lands concurred by them. However, towards the edges of the Empire very little of that filtered through. When the Romans established their ‘Lower Germanicus Limes’ in 83CE, the Scheldt and Rhine rivers became the official and protected northern boarder of the Empire.

At that point in time Oss did find itself in an interesting position; right in the middle of an emerging market environment. We start seeing a significant increase in population in the settlements in Ussen (north west of the current city centre) and increasingly over time Roman artefacts are becoming more common and towards the end they basically had started to replace many of the native implements. This not only signifies the Roman influence but also a change in economy as many of these goods were imported from other parts of the Empire.

Historical Roman documents talk about the importance of the cattle trade and the salt mentioned before was an important element in tanning. The farm houses could easily house 30+ cattle and most probably these boarder settlements also had a lively trade with farmers further north of the Roman boarder all keen to profit from the demand from Roman cities such as Nijmegen and other army boarder posts along the Limes.

The names Ussen, Oss as well ox (Oss=ox)in the coat of arms of the early nobility in the Middle Ages all show a strong possible link between cattle and the local people. The closely linked settlements in Ussen – known as Westerveld, Vijver and Zomerhof – could therefore well have been a centre for the cattle trade.

The linden tree under which the ox is standing has, as we know, a deep Germanic religious/cultural meaning.

However, the most recent explanation is that the name Oss is a hydronime which has to do with the water that has been flooded the river plains here and that this was a place laying above the water, indeed the town centre is called the Hill (Heuvel). One of the settlements (now named Westerveld) seemed to be the most prosperous of the five, perhaps housing a Batavii (?) merchant/tribal leader, whose house seems to have had a veranda (porticus), as well as perhaps as much 8 or 9 (supporting) farmers. Perhaps it could also have functioned as a feasthall (mead hall)? Some of these  solid farmhouses was very large between 20 and 30 meters and even 40 meters long, some of the stables in these farmhouses (long-houses) could have as many as 30 cattle, on average they would hold between 15 and 20 cattle.  It is one of the largest known settlements from the Roman period west of the military base of Nijmegen. This settlement had a double ditch around it as well as most likely a pole foundation and inside the ‘protected area’ archeological evidence shows remnants of luxury pottery, fibula, wine barrels (used as the casing for a water put) and glassware. None of this was accessible to the local population with strong links with the military depots.

The three settlements in Ussen also had a (combined) urnfield, in total some 400 people have been buried here, the site includes a row of six large tumuli – most likely for the owners of the large house – dating from between 60 and 150CE.

Other possible trading links in the Brabant region – along the same lines as mentioned in Westerveld – include settlements in: Lith, Teeffelen, Macharen, Nistelrode, Bladel, Someren, Riethoven, Hoogeloon (one of the very few known houses that would come the closest to a Roman villa) en Cuijk. ¹

In Nisterode, not far from Ussen, was a similar house with a portica situated, also here a wine barrel was used for a water put. Not far from this settlement a real Roman treasure was unearthed.

Treasure of Nistelrode

In the early spring of 2004, archaeologists made an extraordinary discovery in Nistelrode in North Brabant. No fewer than thirty ornately decorated bronze pitchers, bowls, wine decanters and candelabras were exposed. It was a Roman wine service, unique to the Netherlands. They also exposed a portion of a Batavian settlement. This dated from the period from the end of the 1st to the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. In addition to the wine service, they also found shards, roof tiles, coins, broaches and – via tracks – the plots of three farms. It is not clear if this concerns a ritual offering or a quick burial of luxury goods to avoid it being raided by invading Germanic tribes. ²

(Nistelrode treasure see video clip: National Museum Leiden)

Roman historians are talking about the Batavii, despite a major uproar they were in general loyal Romans and fierce members of the Roman Legions. There is evidence that also this region was influenced by them but it is unknown how much influence or participation they had in the local economy. It most likely that what the Romans call Batavii were people very much related with the people who lived here, they certainly were not ‘foreign’ invaders.

At the start of the 2^nd century, Tacitus reports some interesting changes to the social system. In the boarder regions wealth (arable land) was now distributed on the basis of status and perhaps the above mentioned Westerveld settlement is an example of that.   By mid 2nd century Westerveld seemed already to have lost its important status. This could have coincided with the regular insertions from the Germanic tribes on the other side of the river. By 175 they had well and truly established themselves in Brabant.  However, the three settlements in Ussen remained occupied, however, population seem to have halved by that time.  This coincides with the destruction and/or abandonment of the other important Roman sites such as Hoogeloon, Empel, Kessel and Ceuclum also Nijmegen was targeted with Roman temples burned down.

Finally, after 2000 years of occupation, the settlements in Ussen were suddenly disappeared totally abandoned around 225AC.   Empel followed a decade later, most site linked to the Roman era were abandoned before 250, Ceuclum was perhaps the last stronghold it was destructed around 275.  The Roman fortresses in Lugdunum (Katwijk) on the North Sea and Nijmegen were also abandoned around this time. This all happened during the Turbulent Third Century (see below). It has also been argued that water levels had risen sharply which made occupation no longer feasible here. Also in 275 the region was struck by a severe plague epidemic, perhaps coinciding with the devastations of war? It remains a puzzle what happened with all the people who once lived there, did they fled with the Roman troops, was there wholesale murder involved, was it the plague, nobody knows. In less than 15% of settlements that were occupied during the Roman period, archeological evidence shows any continuation of farming activity, again more along the river Maas (Macharen, Lith, Teeffelen, Grave, Heusden) than elsewhere . In Oss it looks like the people who stayed moved to the Heuvel (a 6 meter high hill) where the medieval city started to evolve from;  only slightly south from where the old settlements had been. Also in places such as Nijmegen, Tongeren, Cuijk, Maastricht settlements continued be it at a very severely reduced numbers.

After the reorganisation of the Empire under Diocletian and most likely after Emperor Julian had reestablished control in the region after his victory over the Franks and Alimanni at the battle of Strabourg in 357, late Roman fortresses were rebuilt in Kessel (using the remnants of the old temple) and Ceuclum. In 358 the Salian Franks were given autonomy over the region (Toxandria) and as a result of new multicultural policies these fortresses were now defended by Frankish Romans.

When in 402  the Romans definitely abandoned the Lower Germanicus Limes,  the Franks took full control of the region between the Rhine and the  Scheldt and the Alamanni took over the fortress Wiesbaden on the Rhine. The whole boarder region rapidly depopulated after a total collapse of the local economy.

Ground water levels only  started to drop at around 800, which made farming in the fertile river plains possible again. However, it wasn’t until the Late  Middle Ages that the area around Ussen was reoccupied, most probably more seriously only after dykes arrived along the river Maas from 1100 onwards.

The Roman Administrative system

Imperial system

According the Roman tradition the power to govern was transferred from the people (that is the free men) to the emperor, according the rules of the Roman Republic. This included to military power (imperium) and the civil power (potestas). The Emperor was the first among equals (princeps).

Initially the free people were represented in (voting) tribunals, however over time the Senate took over that role . The Romans believed that their governing system was given to them by the gods and that authority was later passed on to the Senate.  However, in real life  this body was ruled by a select, small and highly influential number of senatorial families. In name the Emperor ruled on behalf of the senate and the people (Senatus Populusque Romanus – SPQR) but in all reality the senate and the people were one and the same. At regular intervals the Senate was put aside by an emperor who was able to gather enough power to rule as a dictator.

The Emperor was at the same time also the high priest with sacred powers (pontifex maximus). This also provided him with elevated powers (maiestas). Ultimate deification took place when Emperor Diocletian proclaimed himself ‘dominus et deus’ (lord and god). This led to idolisation of the emperor already before his death.

The Emperor could also delegate some of this power to others, this concept was known as ‘regnum’ linked to ‘rex’. The regnum had also geographic limitations (dominium) and the person in charge here was the dominus. Dominus related both to land ownership as well as to the power over the people who lived there (subiecti).

The smallest administrative centre was the civitas (plural: civitates) concentrated in and around the cities; as will be further discussed below. They established their own councils, they were represented by imperial officers. There were also strong links here with certain senatorial families.

On of the flaws of the imperial system was that the Romans never developed a satisfactory succession system, this often led to rivalry between the imperial family, the senate and the army.

The army

The Romans had a standing army of 300,000 men. However, this was to small for the total defense of the empire.  Soldiers signed up for 25 years and were often stationed for very long periods of time . There was a lack of mobility and the structure of the army with soldiers loyal to their generals were a very powerfull force in the empire and many emperors came from the army.

Greater mobility was created during the reign of Diocletian however, this also led to rivalry between the separate units.

Roman Law

Nearly 2,500 years after its early beginnings Roman Law is still having its impact on modern societies.  It dates back to the semi legendary Twelve Tables which were written by ten prominent Roman citizens in 451BCE upon their return from Athens where they had studied the work of the 6th century BCE Athenian legislator Solon.

The Romans developed a legal system based on professional interpretation of law (something the Greek didn’t do). Legislators started to write statues with judges deciding on precedents. These were professionals operating separately from the Roman Senate, the latter was not the legislative body as is the case in modern times.

Roman Law developed around decisions that settled disagreements between citizens who were obliged to bring their disputes to annual elected officials known as Praetor Urbanus. The body of law that thus was developed over centuries became know as ‘edictal law’. Famous jurists include: Julian, Papinian, Gaius, Ulpian and Cicero. ³

During the 1,000 years of the Roman Empire the often unwieldy ‘edictal law’ needed reviews, reorganisation and reinterpretation. New Codexes were developed at several times, especially during the latter years of the Empire.

Perhaps the most famous one is the Justinian Code from 529 (see below).

New provinces in the north

After his visit to the region in 27BCE,  Augustus divided Gallia in three part, as a result of this Gallia Belgica came into existence. Gallia Belgica included most of what later became the Low Countries (incl. Luxembourg), northern France and the Lower Rhine region. Its territory started from the Garonne in what is now northern France   and ended along the northern boarder of the empire along the river Rhine and included the Rhine land. The initial capital was Durocortorum – Reims. The other main cities were: Camaracum (Cambrai), Nemetacum (Arras), Samarobriua (Amiens), Divodorum (Metz) and Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

The province was further split in Belgica Prima (eastern section with capital Augusta Treverorum, Trier) and Belgica Secunda (Reims). Similar to the earlier split, the divisions were led by the geography of the region. The border between Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda was approximately along the River Maas. The most important Roman city in the region since 16BCE was Trier. A position sometimes challenged by Cologne. Metz – at that time the capital of the Belgian Tribe the Mediomatric – was in 52BCE occupied by the Romans  and became the cross roads of two important Roman roads; the north-south one from Trier to Marseille and east-west from Strasburg to Reims.

The city grew to 40,000 people at the height of Empire (2^nd century). A few centuries the city later became the capital of the new Frankish country of Austrasia. The influence of Metz on Brabant is significant, but not all that well understood.

Saint Pierre aux Nonnains

One of the most amazing buildings in north-western Europe that dates back to Roman times and whereby that building is still in use is Saint Pierre aux Nonnains. It started as a basilica (building for public meetings) or a palestra (gymnasium) around 380-400 it became a store for carriages and than in the 6^th century it became a church and abbey for women and an arsenal in the 16^th century. It survive the attack of the Vandals in the 4^th century, Attila in 451, the siege of 1552. It has been magnificently restored and is used for occasional exhibitions; we visited this special place in 2009. The beautifully decorated stone choir enclosure (balustrade) of the old Merovingian church has been preserved and is on display in the museum of La Court d’Or. Another amazing remnant of the Gallo-Roman period is the Jouy-aux-Arches Aqueduct just outside Metz where it crossed – in those days – the river Mosel.

In 38BCE the German tribe the Urbii, came to an agreement with the Romans an settled on the left bank of the Rhine and at the same time became an important Roman military camp.

In the year 15 Agrippa the granddaughter of Emperor Nero was born, she married Emperor Claudius in 49.  She arranged for her birth city to be promoted to Colonia Claudia Ara Aprippinensium (CCAA – Cologne), this provided its inhabitants with Roman citizenship. In its time the city was known as ‘Ara’ and its citizens called themselves Agrippinenses.

The military governor and his civil administration were also seated in CCAA. Under Emperor Tiberius, in the year 17, the Roman Province of Belgica was renamed and divided in tho military regions: Germania Inferior and Germania Superior (Lower and Upper Germania). Under Domitianus, between 82 and 90, they became official provinces.

Here the Emperor had the sole rights to appoint the governors. Until that time the governors were appointed by the Roman Senate. Germania Superior included what is currently Switzerland and Alsace. It was at this time that the Roman Empire reached its size that it would remain for most of its existence, until the decline started to set in the 5^th century.

Germania Inferior under military rule

This new province consisted of modern day southern Netherlands, east part of Belgium and a western part in Germania. CCAA became the capital of the new province. Other major cities included Tongeren, Xanten and Maastricht.

Xanten – Roman Cemetery

Early settlement dates back to 2000 BCE and perhaps on tribal grounds the Roman’s built at 15 BCE Castra Vetera – as part of the Limes. The fortress was destroyed during the Batavian Revolt in 70 AD, at that time it had a military occupation of between 8,000 and 10,000 soldiers.  A new fortress was built nearby which was known as Castra Vetera II. A nearby created settlement, which was inhabited by 10,000 to 15,000 usually former legionaries, was given the rights of a Colonia in 110 by the Roman emperor Marcus Ulpius Traianus, who renamed the city into Colonia Ulpia Traiana. After the Roman period a new town was rebuild near the Roman cemetery, legend had it some martyrs from the 3rd century,  had been buried here – soldiers who had refused orders from Emperor Diocletianus to stop the heathen Christian methods. The new town lay ‘ad sanctum’, near the saint and that name evolved in Xanten.

The boarder region remained largely out of the hands of the civil administration and was directly ruled by the military (Exercitus Germania Inferior). They had several legions in operation here of which two were permanent: I Minervia and XXX Ulpa Victrix. It also had its own navy the Classis Germania which operated from Castra Vetera (Velzen) and later from Agrippinensis (Valkenburg). The local leaders (military and bureaucracy) were initially all appointed by Rome and most of the time only stayed for relative short periods in the various places within the empire. There was little or no local civil organisation in the area, the administration was purely military. This however, rather rapidly started to change, once Roman occupation became more permanent.

Third Century Crisis

The Roman Empire was largely built around its military power. After it had secured power in Rome it gradually extended its regional power in order to secure its homeland and its need for its own society (e.g the food supplies from North Africa).  Later Empires  followed the same developments and currently one could replace foodstuff with oil and place it in a similar context. So the empire was more or less in a permanent state of war. Part of such a powerful system are its politics and at many times politic intrigues, murders, executions, revolts and power struggle were also a permanent feature.  On top of that it had its ongoing natural disasters such as floods, draughts and plagues. The empire was  more or less permanent state of crisis.

The African food bowl

One of the most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire was North Africa and the coastal region along the Mediterranean was during this period and integral part of Europe. Even land that currently is part of the Sahara dessert (300-400km inland) was fertile and a very productive area. Without North Africa the Empire would not have been bale to feed its citizens. With the usual Roman efficiency the area was divided in provinces with flourishing regional centers of which Carthage was the main capital.  The provinces were: Egypt, Cyrenaica (eastern part of Lybia), Tripolitana (rest of Lybia), Africa (Tunisia), Mauritania (land of the Moors) and Numidia (Morocco/Algeria). The main cities were: Cyrenaica, Carthage, Utica, Cirta, Leptis, Magna and Hippo Regius

Back to the Third Century this  most certainly tops the crises list and became the beginning of the end game for the Empire.

Climatic changes, as we mentioned above  in relation to the situation around the rivers in the Low Countries,  large part of the northern border flooded and the Lower Germanicus Limes were abandoned. This allowed the Germanic tribes – who had already started to put a lot of pressure on the northern frontier – to take over the higher grounds within the abandoned areas, these were largely very fertile agriculture lands.  From here raids now started to occur deeper into the empire.

On the eastern border the empire came under pressure of the emerging Persian Empire who had just defeated the more loosley structured Parthians, with whom the Romans had more or less lived in peace. The Persians however, had other plans and started push west wards.

The Goths – who will play a key role in the final faith of the empire – used the crisis to grow its own force on the north-eastern border (along the Danube).

These troubles also led to internal, various leaders squabbling over the best plan of actions. The start of the Crisis is often linked to the assassination of Emperor Serverus Alexander. Between 235 and 284, there were nothing less than 50 different emperors, some only lasted days or maximum months. In 253 this led to a co-emperor-ship, Valerian addressed the problems in the east and Gallienus those in the west. This became the start of a period that continued to final collapse in 476, whereby there were 3 and sometimes 4 c0-emperors and within that system sometimes led to near-secessions (for a few years there was the Gallic Empire and Britain was also ‘independent’ for decade or so). It wasn’t until Diocletian before more stability arrived.

The reorganisation of Diocletian

Over time more and more administrative staff was recruited from the ‘foreign’ provinces and locals slowly even started to replace even most military staff. Increasingly also ‘free’ Germans started to take part in these functions. Local administration developed also in the provinces itself, we already saw how that developed in Noviamagus.  The Emperor who succeeded the range of short lived emperors,  Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( Diocletian) (284 – 305) ,was born in Salone (Split – Croatia)  than the Roman Province of Illyricum. He reorganised the Roman Empire which  led to the developments of a tetrarchy with four autonomous regions: Italy and Spain in the west, Britain  (with London – see clip) and Gaul in the north, Illyricum and Persia in the east and North Africa and the remainder of the Empire. On a regional level over 100 provinces were established.,

He also appointed a co-emperor: Maximian. However, they both didn’t reside in Rome. For reasons discussed above, Diocletian made his capital Nicomedia (now Izmit, Turkey) and Maximian established himself in Milan.  This also led to a decrease of the power of Senate which remained situated in Rome, decisions were increasingly  made elsewhere. Diocletian only once visited Rome at the 20th anniversary of his reign and only stayed here for six weeks. Following the diarchy two assistants (ceasars) were appointed  Galerius for Diocletianus and Constantius Chlorus for Maximian.

Constantinus was the military leader in Britain and Gaul (based in Trier) – his son Constantine would later become the first Christian Emperor .  The fourth region was ruled by Galerius from Sirmium (Serbia).  Relations between the four rulers were strengthened by intermarriages.

Diocletian furthermore divided the provinces into dioceses The smallest administrative centres were in and around the cities. The so called civitas were divided in pagi, which included vici (rural centres), and villae (estates). In Gaul, this system was progressively applied to all of the 17 provinces and became the origin of the modern  pays, cités, cities, città, ciudad, villes and villages.

Pagus was the Latin name for the smallest administrative district of a province, more or less equivalent to a modern county (canton). This word gave in French pays (country), paysan (farmer, through paganus), paysage (landscape),  and gau (gouw). Previously a pagus had been an informal designation of a rural district, with rather flexible (natural) boarders as they were seen by the local people. The people in these outlaying pagi often clanged to their traditional believes (pagans). The concept itself dates back to the Etruscan, they divided the rural area in pagi. Rome was the ‘urbs’ with centralised  jurisdiction.

Most of these civitates attempted to emulate the great capital at Rome, and it was indeed a poor place that did not possess an impressive public buildings with law courts and temples (basilica), an amphitheatre for play-goers, and a racetrack. The civitas would also boast a public bath, busy markets, and as much in the way of civic amenities as the rich land-owners of the pagus could afford to endow the city.

Local government and local life throughout the empire was centred upon such communities, and a Roman could move from the frontiers of Scotland to the mountains of Syria and still feel pretty much at home. Titles such as count (comes) and duke (dux) are also dating back to the Late Empire. They were given to holders of substantial, strategically situated territories.

He proclaimed himself ‘dominus and deus’ (Lord and God); established Mithraism as the official state religion and forbade Christianity, this led to one of the most severe persecutions. In order to protect his absolutism, he employed a large secret police.

This significant increase in bureaucracy required new taxes. In exchange he provided the large landowner certain rights under public law in this way governance, justice and tax collection were linked to landownership. In this way private property title resulted in rights under public law. For fiscal reasons farmers were linked to their land. It is here that we find the roots to following feudal systems.

During Carolingian times there were some 400 counts (large landowners) that were of significant importance to maintain the integrity of the Frankish Empire. Many of these Roman legal and administrative systems were also adopted by the Roman Catholic Church as well as by the Merovingians and Carolingians. However, the borderlines of these territories were certainly not well defined.

Diocletian doubled the size of the army and instigated far reaching military reforms. Basically changing the army, as it was established by Augustus, from one based on conquest to one based on defence . One group the ‘limitanei’ occupied a buffer zone along the Danube and the Rhine. The second group known as ‘corps’ was a mobile force usually stationed close the headquarters of one of the four rulers, wherever they were on campaign. Along the Rhine lightly armed boarder troops on horseback were deployed, often recruited from the new German invaders. They were only deployed as a first level of defense with the aim to deploy larger units for assistance if so required. By deploying locals (as a result of the rapidly changing multicultural policy of the Empire) they successfully avoided large scale attacks. Nijmegen, Kessel and Ceuclum were, as mentioned above,  the key fortresses during the 4th century along the far northern boarder of the Empire.

Thanks to Diocletian and his successor Constantine law and order was restored and the empire recovered. However, its structure was fundamentally different from the one that existed before the Third Century Crisis.

Economic power moving to the east

Both Deocletian and Maximian abdicated peacefully in 305 and handed their power over to Galerius and Constantinus. After the death of Constantinus, his son Flavius Vaterius Constantinus (Constantine) became co-emperor in 306. Also he was also born in the Balkan, in Nis. After a campaign against his co-emperor in 312 he became the undisputed sole ruler again of the Roman Empire in the west.

Meantime in the east Licinius had become his c0-emperor . Together in 313 the signed the famous Edict of Milan that granted religious freedom to the Christians. At the same time they also officially agreed to split the empire in two. This treaty collapsed when Constantine fought and defeated Lucinius in 324 and became the sole ruler of the empire. The decline of Rome had continued and the economic activity started to shift from te agriculture based west to the trading based east.

Rome’s total decline never happened because of the wide accepted – but dubious – belief that the apostle Peter had been martyred here. Peter was called the ‘rock’ by Jesus on which the church would be built. Rome therefore was the logical choice to become the capital of the Christian empire.

However, the political power of the empire moved to east where Constantine renewed the city wall of the town of Byzas and in 328 started the new capital that two years later would be called Constantinople.

The book innovation

In the 4th century we also saw an innovation that would have far reaching consequences and was immediately sized upon by the emerging Catholic Church. In the codification of Roman Law the 12-foot long scrolls started be replaced by the book. The Codex Book as it was called referred to the reason of its use). The new format was far more easier to navigate and far easier to store and to read and retrieve information from.

It can not be underestimated how important catholicism became for the transition from the Roman period to the Middle Ages and into our own modern times; socially, politically, economically and administrative.

Infrastructure key to centralised power

During Roman times the area of what now is Brabant was traversed with one of the key Roman roads, coming from Italy, via France (Bavai, the capital of the Nervii near Valenciennes) linking Tongeren (Aduatuca) via Geminiacum to Cologne. Geminiacum was a vicus (Roman village); a relay for the Roman troops. This vicus developed overtime in the now Belgian town of Liberchies in Hainaut. The unsealed road was built in the period of Emperor Augustus (27BCE – 14CE). The Roman settlement of Metz grew at the crossroads of two important Roman roads. The Lyon, Dijon, Metz, Trier, Cologne axis was known as the Road of Agrippa because Augustus charged his son-in-law, Agrippa, with structuring the route.

Roman roads

The Roman army is still the single largest civil engineering organisation that has ever existed. Their road building activities started in 312BCE (Via Appia) Their all-weather road system remained in place until well into modern times. It was until the Napoleonic era that road building on any significant scale was restarted again. In all over 85,000 kms of road (via) was built by the Romans and extended into Turkey, Romania, Jordan, Spain, North Africa, Britain and Germania.

Roads were designed by architects and surveyed by ‘agrimensores’, a ditch (fossae) was dug out and filled with layers of rubble and sand and finally with gravel or paving. They also used concrete. All roads were between 2.4 (minimum) and 9 meters wide, some had extensive shoulders and/or drains. There were timber bridges and ferries (pontes).

Officially all roads led to the golden milestone near the temple of Saturn in Rome. Traffic already was a problem in Roman times; under Julian Municipality Law (45BCE) commercial carts were restricted to night time access to the cities. Roads were divided into miles (millia passuum meaning 1000 paces) or around 1500 meters. At regular intervals milestones (road signs) were installed. Official ‘staying stations’ (mansions) were established every 25 to 30 kms (sometimes they were military camps, villas or townships).

Furthermore there were places for civilians to stay tabernae (hostels), cauponae (inns), mutationes (horse relay stations, complete with blacksmith, veterinarians and cartwrights) and post offices. Passports were required to travel. In an emergency situation in 9BCE Emperor Tiberius was able to travel 800 kms in 24 hours to catch up with his dying brother Drusus. Of course rivers such as Scheldt, Rhine and Meuse played an even more important role as major military, raiding and trading routes. Control over these roads and rivers became also again important in the following centuries. Despite its great roads it has been estimated that transport by ship was ten times cheaper than transport over land. This would continue to be the situation for nearly two millennia.

Another feature of Roman infrastructure are their aquaducts. We visited the remains of the system that supplied the water for this Roman city that it it heights had a population of 20,000 people. Some of the  places of occupation in the wider region are starting to become a bit more visible during Roman times they include: Utrecht (Trajectum), Nijmegen, Oss, Gennep, Empel, Esch, Halder, Gennep, Cuijk, Zundert, Diessen, Hoogeloon, Grobbendonk, Elewijt, Nivelles, Tienen, Neerhespen, Braives, Namur and Maastricht.

The disintegration of the Empire

It has been argued that the Roman economy to a large extend depended on slaves; in the first century BC there were an estimated 1 million slaves in Italy alone. This also led to ‘laziness’ in relation to innovation and technologies as there was less need for efficiency and productivity. Amazingly at the time of the fall of the Roman Empire the Romans did not have a significant technological advantage, either in agriculture or in the military, over the Germanic tribes.

The Romans owed their strong position in Europe to their superior (military) organisation skills. The economic downfall however started perhaps as much as 200 years before the actual collapse. The Empire had its absolute zenith under Marcus Aurelius (161-180AD). The move of the capital from Rome to Constantinople in 325 was as much another milestone in this decline as the actual final sacking in 476.

Increasingly the Empire failed to generate sufficient taxes to maintain its army, slowly regions slipped back into self sufficiency, the economy declined further and trade all but disappeared. This in turn led to a disastrous decline in the cities with merchants and the middle class  disappearing from that scene.

Germanic insurgents started to increase further destabilising the social and end economic structure. The great urban Roman civilisation disintegrated. In 332 the Empire took a last attempt to turn to tide. This however, resulted in significant social changes, which over time only exasperated the situation. Coloni- (farmers using the land of the landowner in exchange for part of the produce – interestingly one of my forebears, Josef Budde in Wietmarschen, Germany was registered as a colon as late as 1850) – and mancipia (slaves) became hereditary bound to the land they worked. This intrusion on people’s freedom was meant to encounter the labour shortage.

However, all at no avail, what slowly happened is now known as ‘Imperial overstretch’. This was not helped with the rule of some ‘crazy’ emperors which – through their behaviour – greatly undermined the credibility and the central power of the Empire. As a result, the power of the landowners as well as other powerful local people increased. Landowners started to take the law into their own hands, though their ‘patronage’ over weaker individuals.

The position of the local political and military elite changed, from being participants in the Roman Empire they started to take over the power, the ultimate example is the Germanic (Ostrogothic) leader Theodoric, who deposed the Hun/Germanic leader Odoacer who in turn had deposed of the last Roman Emperor of the West Romulus Augustulus.

Also after the collapse of the empire, the Gallo-Roman upper class remained in place , however, they had no structural power, nor did they try to assert such powers. Their villas were largely operating as large estates rather than local farms, however this situation ended by around 260 when Rome increasingly came under attack from ‘barbarians’ from our regions (Gaul). See also video clip Roman Villa de Tellaro Noto Sicily.

The region rapidly depopulated after this. There has been a lot of debate about possible depopulation of the region along the Maas after the collapse of the Roman Empire. There is clear evidence that the farming settlements in Oss were largely abandoned and also other regions along the rivers  show evidence of similar developments. However, there is also evidence that climatic changes might have played a role, large parts of Zeeland got flooded and perhaps floods were also the reason why most of the settlements along the coast were abandoned.

However, in most of the rest of the former Empire, population growth continued, people effected by the collapse of the Roman defences and/or by the climatic changes might perhaps have dispersed further over the land but they didn’t disappear. Other (smaller) communities that also existed in those times perhaps as small as one or two family farm complexes grew slowly but steadily into many of the towns and villages as we know them nowadays.

During the 5^th and 6^th centuries other tribes such as the Visigoths, Burgundians, Sueves, Vandals and Franks took over the western Roman provinces.  By 500, Italy was ruled by the Ostrogoths, Spain by the Visigoths and North Africa by the Vandal. The influence of the ‘Barbarians’ in Roman Europe has been much larger than generally has been thought, also the change over from Roman times to Middle Ages, has been far less ‘dark’ than the Dark Ages suggest. Many elements of the Roman society were adopted by the newcomers and the transition was far more seamless than often has been depicted.

Tribes regain power

The year 476 marks the formal end of the Roman Empire, when Romulus Augustulus was disposed. After this we saw a rapid continuation of the further disintegration of centralised Roman power and there was not enough or very little civic authority to fill this vacuum. This allowed the many Germanic tribes who lived alongside the boarders, to now finally gain control and further invade the collapsed empire. They concentrated their efforts on taking over Roman castras. In 486  Clovis succeeded in conquering the last remaining remnant of Roman Gaul, now known as the kinglet of Soissons. The Roman military commander  Syagrius  had been able to maintain Roman control over this region,  after the battle he escaped to the Visigoths in Toulouse.

Amazingly they took control over most of Western Europe within only a few decades, which further supports a much more ‘natural’ change over from Roman times to Middle Ages. Nevertheless large scale depopulation of the area- that had already started around 250 – accelerated, but nevertheless most villages were able to survive be it with significant lower population levels.

Also the nature of the economy changed. The central monoculture developments in relation to agriculture (Roman villas) disappeared and with it the trading which is a key element of such an economy. In stead subsistence farming arrived with many small farms operated by the villages.

Without trade also the Roman roads rapidly fell into disrepair. After the collapse of centralised governance it took centuries before new strong centralised governments were re-established.

Anarchy, poverty, raiding, and murder became the norm. The Merovingian, Carolingian and Holy Roman Empire attempts to re-establish central control all failed. They all missed the administrative machinery to keep their empires together.  Out of necessity the level of organisational rapidly declined to the feudal system that ruled Europe for well over a millennium and in some part to well into modern times. It can even be argued that the the level of political stability and long lasting peace in Europe still hasn’t reached the level people enjoyed during Roman times.

There is evidence that Toxandria received new emigrants from both directions. The Salii from the north, but equally there is archaeological evidence to argue that the southern influence from the Moselle and Rhine regions and perhaps from even further south has been as significant. The influence from the Moselle region (with Metz as the main centre) will become an interesting reoccurring event in these regions.

The importance of the Roman times for what later would become Brabant was certainly that some towns, villas and infrastructure were established, which would later on, develop into some of the places that would play an important role in the early history of Brabant.

Also the above mentioned infrastructure played a key role in further developments of these areas. During Roman times the population – in what became Brabant – might have increased to around one hundred thousand inhabitants. However, a dramatic depopulation took place around 250AD which coincided with a weakening of the Roman Limes.

Once the new situation became more normalised over the following centuries a new centre of power started to develop in the Maas and Mosel valleys. Further activities started to occur a bit further south and east along the river Rhine in Germany and in what is now northern France. Slowly we started to see the emergence of what would later become the kingdoms of England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain.

Eastern Roman Empire

With the sacking of Rome in 476, the Roman Empire in the West had disintegrated. However, in the east the Roman Empire flourished. After – as we saw above – the tetrarchy instituted by Diocletian in 293, the Greek city of Byzant, became the seat of one of the co-emperors. However, immediately after his death the tetrarchy collapsed and the next Roman Emperor Constantine became to sole emperor of the whole empire again. He was born in the region and only briefly stayed in Rome, he moved the centre of the empire from Rome to the new city that was building and that in 330 was named Constantinople (formerly known as Byzant). With the slow decline of the empire in the west the eastern part had become increasingly more important for both political and trading purposes. As was the case with Rome, also Constantinople depended for its major food supplies on North Africa and in particular its relationship with Alexandria in Egypt was of great importance.

The name Eastern Roman Empire is an invention from modern times. At the time it was simply known as the Roman Empire and for the next 1,000 years smaller and larger parts of the western territories remained part of the Empire.  The view from Constantinople westwards was daunting for anyone looking at recreating the Roman Empire, the Vandals in North Africa, Visigoths in Span, Franks in Gaul, Ostrogoths in Italy and the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy in Britain. At the same time that this western part started to increased pressure, breaching the borders of the the financially better positioned eastern part. It could only  keep its borders intact by paying tribute to some of their enemies. This situation only pushed East and West further apart as East Roman politics were aimed at keeping the ‘barbarians’  as far as west possibly.

They did the same when the Huns arrived at the gates of Constantinople and huge sums were paid out, eventually the Huns moved westwards where they created enormous havoc before their chief Atilla, suddenly died in 453. Interestingly it was Emperor Theodosius II who after this defeat built up a relationship with the remaining Huns and they became one of the most feared parts of his army. After the Ostrogoths had captured most of Italy, Emperor Zeno negotiated a deal with them that basically provided them full control over the lands they had conquered with a nominal supremacy of the Roman Emperor. However in 553, the Goths were decisively defeated by the Roman army.

From 530 onwards, under Emperor Justinian the Great and his enormously successful  general Belisarius, Italy –  and in particular Rome –  Sicily, a coastal part of Spain and the previous lost territories in North Africa were reconquered. He was less successful in the Balkans where he was unable to defeat the Slavic tribes who had moved southwards toward the boarder of the Roman Empire. In the end he signed a treaty with them, which provided the Romans with free passage over the river Danube (the former boarder of the Empire).

Corpus Juris Civili – Justinian’s Code

Justinian became universally famous because of his legislative work, remarkable for its sweeping character.In 529, a ten-man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian revised the ancient Roman legal code, creating the new Corpus Juris Civilis, a collection of laws that came to be referred to as “Justinian’s Code”.

The same intellectual Justinian closed the famous Academy of Athens – founded by Plato approx 380BCE – as part of his imperial ban against pagan education. Its most illustrious teachers where recruited by the Persian Emperor Khusro I  (Khosrau, Chosroes) and recreated the academy at the Sassanid Capital of Ctesiphon, where the works of Plato and his successors translated into Persian and as such they were kept for humanity.

In 554 Justinian issued a Pragmatic Sanction, a far reaching piece of legislation that covered the repossession Ostrogoth property, the restoration of the hand out of free grain to citizens of Rome, agriculture prices, excise taxes and research grants. Interestingly for Rome he also declared that its governors from now should be nominated by local bishops and all property previous owned by the Arian Catholic Church was granted to the Orthodox Catholics.

In 565, Justinian died of old age and was succeeded by his nephew Justin (the mad) and his wife Sophia. Already weakened by the Justinian plague that had ravaged the lands, a severe economic and political downturn followed.

During his 13-year reign the Lombards moved into Italy, the Avars took over the Danube region and the Slavs moved into Greece and the Balkans. This also undermined the dominant position the Byzantine Empire had in the east Mediterranean trade. After the death of Justin  in 578 his general Tiberius became the next emperor but was equally unable to stop the tide. His successor Emperor Maurice was able to at least stop a further collapse. However, under his rule the army rebelled and killed the emperor and his family. The new ruler – Phocas – was one of the most brutal in Roman history.

Under Emperor Heraclius, Latin was abandoned and replaced by ancient Greek.  By the time of his arrival in 610,  Constantinople  had over half a million inhabitants. Over the following years  we do see regular recapturing of old Roman territories, however, overall the empire kept shrinking some parts of Italy remained on and off under the domination of Constantinople until the 11th century. It was during this time that Italian cities such as Genoa, Pisa and Venice started to emerge as early trading centers with military powers. In 1061 a Genoese- Pisan fleet defeated the Arab (Saracen) fleet near Sardinia.  In 1187, the Empire lost Serbia and Dalmatia.

The crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, where they established the Latin Empire of Constantinople  which lasted till 1261. The rest of the Empire started to disintegrate with independent territories such as the Kingdom of Thessaloniki, The Duchy of Athens, the Kingdom of Achaia, the Empire of Trebizonde, the Empire of Nicaea and others. The Emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIII Paleologus  succeeded to recapture Constantinople in 1261.

When the Eastern Empire finally collapsed  in 1453 under the invading Ottoman Turks, there was very little left of its formal glory, just the city of Constantinople and its surroundings. Interestingly The Ottoman Empire – similar to the Parthians – never had  a strongly centralised structure, nevertheless it was able to maintain its Emoire together for 450 years.