Frisia and Utrecht

Frisia

Prehistoric and Roman times

The first possible indication of the Frisii is the Elp culture (1,800 – 800BCE) a sub set of the Beaker Culture. They started to build ‘terpen’ (artificial settlement mounds) in what is known Friesland from around 700BCE. There are indications that the early Frisii arrived from the higher grounds in Drenthe.

One of the major pagan site of the Frisians was on Heligoland and became  a major aim for destruction by the missionaries who arrived a few hundred years later in the area, such as Willibrord and Boniface.

The Frisii were mentioned by Tacitus and were ‘conquered’ by Drusus in 12, but the Romans never had a good grip on the Frisii, they remained a problem for the Romans (and later for the Merovingians and Carolingians).

After the uprising of the Batavii in 69CE which was supported by several other Germanic tribes including the Frisii, the Romans took stricter control and what is now the Netherlands became divided in four areas:

• Celtic tribes concentrated below the rivers,
• Batavii between the big rivers (Betuwe island), this group became strong allies of the Romans and provided lots of soldiers for their armies.
• Cananefates, in the coastal area above the rivers these lands remained very lightly populated
• Angles and Saxon who mixed with the original Frisii in the northern and eastern parts.

The heartland of the Frisians remained the current Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen. Most likely after the depopulation of the Rhine river delta, during most of the first millennium, Holland became also part of Frisia, perhaps as far south as Antwerp.

Occupation of most of these lands was limited by the changes in sea levels. Sometimes that meant that they wear only able to occupy the dune strip along the coast with the North Sea and on the sand and clay deposits of the rivers. Often man made hills had to be built to make the environment inhabitable and some basic farming possible sheep and cattle). After the Roman time there was a strong depopulation during an extended period of high wate

Early Middle Ages

After the collapse of the Roman Empire and the depopulation of the river delta, we see a change in the economy. Those who were able to survive; became fishermen and skippers. They played a key role in the Anglo Saxon migration to England. After the collapse of the Roman Empire we also see Slavic tribes moving deeper into eastern Europe and this caused a collapse of trade between the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean. This provided the Frisian with opportunity to fill that gap

Bt 400 they have taken over the river area, river delta, coastal area and still occupied their traditional lands further north. The Celts were replaced and/or did intermingle with the Salii Franks who had moved south down from the IJssel River region. This happened  after  the Saxons had encroached  on their lands and had occupied  the eastern part of what is now the Netherlands. The river became the border between these tho confederations of Germanic tribes.

The heartland of the Frisii (Friesland and Groningen) had large sections of land that was not protected by sea dykes, over time sufficient land was deposited to keep it dry most of the time, but when there was above normal high water the area  would still flood, it is in these areas (kwelders) that they built their ‘terpen’ (there are close of 2000 of them and they would contain a few farms and later even small villages). The kwelders were ideally suited for the farming of sheep. The combination of surplus wool and seafaring created an ideal export opportunity.

 

It is believed that this combination made the early Frisii the key traders in north-western Europe. Characteristic of this period is the combination of farmers, tradesmen and merchantmen, often combined in the one person.

The early Medieval Frisians became famous for their cloth (pallia Fresonica). Charlemagne used it as a gift to the Emperor of Persia.  However, through trading the wool was no longer just locally produced they most probably obtained it also from some of their others Anglo Saxons ‘brothers’ who had moved to the British Isles. The cloth industry, the Frisians helped to develop, slowly started to become the basis for an industry that would propel northern Europe into an economic powerhouse.

Throughout northwest Europe they became famous traders and operated from their major centre the town of Dorestad (near the current town of Wijk bij Duurstede). This rapidly became the largest city in the north. During their heydays between 750 and 850 the town had a kilometre long street, parallel to the river, complete with timber fortifications and timber houses, most with their moorings in front of the house. Interestingly these houses showed combinations of farmers, tradesmen and merchantmen.

According to archaeological evidence, as we will see below, the Frisians were also frequent visitors at the southern Brabantine river port of Ename on the Scheldt. At the provincial museum in this town we visited the very interesting and innovative display that also talks about the Frisian tradespeople from Tiel visiting their port. This Frisian city minted its own money (sceattaes) between 650 and 755, this will also be discussed below.

Merovingian – Frisii wars

It was not until the 7th century that the population started to grow again at that time we, for the first time, also see the emergence of an early form of central leadership in Frisia. Initially the Frisians were successful to withstand the ever expanding Franks (Merovingians).

The most famous and successful Frisian king was Radbod, son of Aldgils, the first know Frisian king who had established Frisian rule in Frisia, Utrecht and Holland (West Frisia). Both ruled a country – that stretched from the Scheldt to the Weser -  from Dorestad and/or Utrecht.

Abbot St Wilfrid of the Ripon Monastery in Yorkshire received, according to his records,  accommodation from Aldgils during the winter of 678 – 679, on his visit across the Channel..

Around 675, the Merovingian king Dagobert asked Archbishop Cunibert from Cologne to establish a fortress at one of the other Frisians town, Utrecht to from here keep an eye on the Frisians. This was probably erected on the remains of Roman fortress Traiectum (a passable stretch in the river). Uut- Trecht (Below the Trecht) seems to be the place were the new settlement got established. The castle grounds became also the first place for the early churches that were built here and eventually the current Dom cathedral.

The importance of the Frisians was also highlighted by the fact that Grimoald II, the son of the Merovingian Mayor of the Palace Pippin II (the Middle) and his wife Plectrude, was married, in 711,  to Theutsind the daughter of King Radbod in order to force a truce.  Pippin had beaten Radbod at Dorestad in 695 and to seal the peace Radbod offered his daughter as bride to Pippin’s son. The seat of power now moved to Utrecht.

After the victory and under the protection of the Merovingians, the recently consecrated bishop Willibrord established a cathedral in Utrecht.

After the sudden death of Pippin, in Jupille in 714, Radbod recovered Utrecht and Dorestad and expanded his reign to the Scheldt and even took a navy fleet up to Cologne. Willibrord had to leave the city and later on Boniface  reported from Utrecht at that time that the churches were demolished, he also visited Radbod in this town.

Grimoald also dies in 714 and Pippin’s other son Charles Martel took over as mayor of the palace. After Radbod’s death in 719 Charles was able to conquer more and land from the Frisians. This also meant the end of the independent kingdom Of Frisia. His death also finally allowed Willibrord to now  return more permanently to Utrecht and together with Boniface he preached in what is now the Netherlands.

In 734 the Frisians under Duke Bubo launched another revolt halting the spread of Christianity and Charles launched a sea and land attack crushing the revolt to beyond the Zuiderzee. While the occasional battles continued during the rest of that century, the Frisian never recovered from this defeat again.

While a large section of Frisia was lost the Franks never seemed to move further north above the main rivers. It was not until the 16th century that Frisia finally totally lost it independence.

West Frisia

It wouldn’t be until the 11th century before we start seeing central leadership returning to the coastal regions (Holland at that stage still called Frisia). By that time the Frisians had again regained their strong trading tradition and had become the first merchant economy in north western Europe (see: High Middle Ages).

These developments  coincided with a significant growth in population and we start see the disappearance of forests to make place for land that needs to be cultivates, peat areas were developed into agriculture land, however for this they needed to drain the water out of these areas. Peat works like a sponge and when it dries out it shrinks. This land couldn’t be used for agriculture any more and became grazing land; often the land sank that low that it filled up with water which a few hundred years later required it to be pumped dry again with the assistance of the Dutch version of the windmill. At the same time of course these events also required that dykes needed to be built, and because of the disturbance that has been set in motion, these dykes frequently needed to be raised a process that is continuing till today.

This made the nobels in this part of Frisia increasingly more important and they started to become more and more independent, The ‘Frisian’ are first forced to retreat to what was called West Frisia, but slowly the whole are between the North Sea and the Middle Sea (Zuiderzee) becomes independent and known as Holland. For more information on the combined Frisian and Holland history see: Holland and Zeeland.

Friesland

The rest of Frisia (the modern provinces of Groningen and Friesland) remained more or less independent. However, there was no central authority and little unity amongst the people in these areas. Neighbouring Dukes and Counts from Holland and Gelre regularly tried to take a slab of the region, but long term they were never totally successful.

An influential noble family that played a key role in Middle Friesland were the Brunoanen, they were a Saxon family. After the Saxons were finally conquered by Charlemagne several of  their warlords became important landowners in the conquered area; it is possible that Brun of  Saxony  who was one of them. They became the counts of  Brunswick (Eastphalia). They were a branch of the Liudolfings to which also the Ottonian German Emperors  also belonged – the first one being Henry I the Fowler. Liudolf  is the first known count of this branch who was born around 805 and dies around 865, he married Oda, a Frankish princess, very much along Charlemagne tradition to ensure the integrity of the Frankish Empire. During the following centuries the Frisian counts – being closely linked to the German Emperors –  did rise in power, which assisted in maintaining their independence. Already around 1000 the Brunoanen were able to extend their powers to the west, probably by defeating the Frisians who had their power base on the other side of the Middle Sea in Holland.

Increasingly these two Frisian branches formed independent entities, with the West Frisians trying again and again to will back their power in East Frisia. An interesting development that shows the independence of the Frisian happened in 1101 when Count Henry the Fat, also linked to the Brunoanen, was killed by Frisians.  As independent people (not under a feudal overlord) the ‘free’ Frisians earned their status by providing support the the German Emperors, Willem III for the first time officially recognised them in a privilege of 1248, which was again confirmed in 1417. The exact nature of this Frisian Freedom is unclear as at the same time there were Counts of Frisia, but most certainly their feudal power of the local farmers was severely limited.

The Battle of Ane in 1227 is probably the most famous of them all (see below). Another one is known as the Battle of Stavoren (or Warn) in 1345 where again the Hollanders under the leadership of Count Willem IV of Holland were defeated by the free  Frisians.

The end of this ‘Freedom’ happened when  Albrecht Duke of Saxony, an astute military commander earned the respect of the Dukes of Burgundy. In 1488 Albrecht was able to liberate Duke Maximilian, who was captured by the citizens of Brugge. He also assisted the Burgundians to recapture Holland, Flanders and Brabant. In 1498 he was rewarded for this and received the title Governor of Friesland – with a history of Saxon Counts in Frisia this was an interesting historic development. However, against the old traditions,  he was not allowed to plunder the captured regions. This led to a severe financial loss for Albrecht.

The power of the ‘free Frisian’ had been undermined by discord between segments of the people. Within the region there was already -  since 1325 –  a civil war between the Schieringers and Vetkopers it involved the Counts of Holland, Counts of East Friesland, the City of Groningen and the ‘free’ Frisians (this was similar to other regional conflicts such as the Hoekse en Kabeljouwse twisten see Popular Uprisings). The reasons for the conflict, that also here lasted until around 1500 and finally was definitely stopped by Charles V – are also here unclear and allegiances shifted regularly. Sometimes it involved local power struggles and at other times the involvement of new rulers such as the Burgundians.

There are several place names in the Netherlands that remind to these ongoing conflicts, from this period dates the village name Hebbrecht in Groningen (it means conflict seeker). Most probably referring to the conflict between the cities in Groningen and the Bishop of Münster.

In the end the Frisians were able to use Duke Albrecht to support their case. However after his death in 1500 the region rapidly deteriorated into a state of local twists again. This was used by the Dukes of Holland to invade Frisia and they actually this time conquered Stavoren.

In the meantime the abandoned troops of the Duke – known as the Grote Garde – started to roam the region. They were either not or poorly paid and were not allowed to plunder. However once abandoned some 4,000 of them went on a rampage through the region, in 1499 they also laid waste to Twente.

At other times there were some local strongmen who were able to grab power for a while. A famous warrior peasant Grote Pier joined the Frisian forces to attack the occupiers during 1514 and 1515, he led a pirate fleet that ravaged havoc in particular in Holland. He became (and still is ) a man of legends.

The Frisian were supported by another archenemy of the Habsburgers, Charles of Gelre, who in 1515 had bought the rights in Friesland from Duke George of Saxony for 100,000 florins.

Finally, in 1524, the region was conquered by Emperor Charles V (Gelre followed in 1548). But even under his reign it was difficult to unite the Frisians. This continued to well into modern times. Under the Dutch Republic, Friesland became one of the Provinces who joined the Dutch Revolt. But when Friesland had to represent itself at the General States in The Hague they first had to get the support of the 30 smaller communities and the eleven major towns. This always took a long time and even in modern times when something is done very slow the well known and common Dutch expression is: “it is done at the pace of 11/30”.

Bishopric (Sticht) Utrecht

Originally part of Frisia its major town was Dorestad, one of the most important trading cities of the early Middle Ages.

After Charles Martel finally, in 719, had defeated the Frisians in Utrecht, it became possible for Willibrord to establish the Bishopric of Utrecht. Under the Carolingians their property and importance increased.

After he had conquered the Saxons, Charlemagne in 796 reorganised the management of the church. Cologne became the archbishopric; this town had already since 313 a bishop.

Utrecht received the territory what basically was all of the Low Countries above the rivers with the exception of some parts in the east that belonged to the Bishops of Münster (see below) and Osnabrück. Parts of Groningen and Gelderland belonged until 1821 to the Bishopric Münster. Wietmarschen and Nordhorn fell under Münster, while Ootmarsum belonged to Utrecht. After the city of Utrecht, Deventer was the most important city of the Bishopric and rapidly built up the reputation of one of the best education centres of the Northern Netherlands. In the early 13th century Utrecht had become the most important port city in the Rhine delta, by 1244 it already had a crane function. However, Dordrecht would soon take over that position.

However as the Bishopric,  Utrecht was for a long time the only rather cohesive entity in the north of the Low Countries and in the early years of the Dark Ages they were the main landholders. However, the lack of a strong hereditary dynastic system opened the opportunity for the lay lords to increase their powers and undermine the unity of the Bishopric.

Initially the Counts of Frisia was the main opposing power. A branch of the Frisians became powerful in Kennemerland and from here (West Frisia) Holland started to emerge. Other regional powers important in the formation of the Low Countries were Flanders, Brabant and Gelre. Obviously it also important to mention the influence of the Vikings who between 800 and 1000 regularly raided the whole of the Low Countries (along the coast and rivers). It was only under Bishop Balderic, towards the end of the 10th century, that the the Vikings were defeated and only from that time onwards was it possible to rebuild the religious centre of Utrecht.

In order to run the Bishopric the bishop appointed ministerialis, feudal bureaucrats in charge of the administration of property and feudal rights on behalf of the Bishop. These functions rapidly became hereditary and many of these families were able to become the new nobili. As an example the Bishop of Utrecht was the overlord of the Ministerialis van Amstel family(see below), later on this family had their own links with for example the Count of Holland and the Lord of Kuyc. They could have fishing rights from one lord and judiciary rights from another and so on, this could happen even within the same place. The van Amstels eventuality became knights in their own right. In the case of this family serious problems started to occur when the Bishop and the Count of Holland came in conflict with each other and they got squeezed in the middle.

Bishop Radboud

Between 900 and 917 Radboud was the 14th bishop of Utrecht and from his mothers side he was a descendent of the old Frisian Royal Family. When on one of their many trip the Vikings raised Utrecht again Radboud fled to Deventer. During a visitation trip though Drente he fell ill and asked to be transported to Ootmarsum, where he died on November 29th .

During the reign of Bishop Balderik (918-977) Emperor Otto I provided him – for services rendered – with some secular powers over the Bishopric, which was gradually extended during the following two centuries.

In 995 Ansfrid II of Huy (Lower Lotharigia) was appointed as bishop. He also held properties around Leuven which later became the core of the County of Leuven. These Counts started to unify the region that would become known as Brabant.

In 1024 Emperor Otto III provided Bishop Adelbold with the full secular powers and received the title of Count. The Bishops now owned the lands known as Nedersticht, more or less the current Province of Utrecht as well as Oversticht most of what is currently Frieland, Groningen, Drente and Overijssel.

Pressed between Holland and Gelre, both with expansionist ambitions the secular position of the ‘Sticht’ was constantly under attack.

In 1076, Bishop Willem took the side of  the Emperor and against the Pope in the Investitures Controversy (See also: The battle between religion and state).

The outcome was that after the Concordat of Worms in 1122 the Bishop of Utrecht would from now on be elected by the Dom Chapter. As a result however – between 1200 and 1500  – whenever the next bishop was elected, the Counts of Holland and the Dukes of Gelre together with their armed mobs would made sure they were present to intimidate the process and get their nominee supported. This often further complicated with the meddling of other ecclesiastic powers led by the pope and other bishops such as those in Münster, Köln and Liege. This frequently resulted in double-bishops.

From 1423 till 1433 the Bishopric had two competing Bishops (Schism of Utrecht). Utrecht appointed Rudolf van Diepholt, while the pope appointed Zweder van Kuilenburg.  Churches, monasteries and other institutions were forced to accept Rudolf. Those who supported the pope’s candidate had to flee Utrecht and seek refuge elsewhere. The Pope put an interdict on Oversticht. All church services were banned, including proper burials. Silent services were permitted. In the end Rudolf was also accepted by the Pope. Within the context of the Middle Ages this situation combined with the interdict was devastating for the local population.

Drenthe

In 1024 Emperor Henry II promised Drenthe in fief to Bishop Bernulf of Utrecht. Coevorden (see also video clip) was the main town in Drenthe  positioned at the cross roads of two important trading routes at a passable place (voorde/fort) through  the largely impregnable morasses. It might have had an early motte-and-bailey castle and an early settlement started to evolve at the foot of it.  The first recorded  Lord is Fredericus of Coevorden, mentioned in 1141, most likely he was the landlord of the bishop.

In the following century, the increasing powers of the bishops  led to serious contests especially between him and the emerging new nobility in Groningen and Drenthe.

After a conflict with Lord Floris van Vorenborch who was married to the widow of previous landlord Rudolf van Coevorden, Count Otto of Bentheim conquered the castle in 1187.  There were consecutive attempts by the sons of Rudolf, Rudolf II and Volker to recapture the castle, they were assisted by of Count Otto I of Gelre, who in this instance was happy to undermine the powers of the Bishop. During these campaign both the Veluwe and Twente were ravaged.

In 1195/1196 the Drenths were asked by Otto van Gelre to support him during the siege of Deventer, during the following rampage of his troops burnt down the church in Ootmarsum, after which date the current church was built.  The Duke of Brabant negotiated a truce. After the campaign the County of Bentheim received Coevorden in fief, for another nine years, after which Rudolf was finally able to reinstate his family as the Lords of Coevorden.

The rather independent Drenths and Frisians in Oversticht revolted on many occasions against the Bishop and for very long periods these people were able to more and less rule their own region. However, at regular intervals the Bishop would send in the army to either punish the people in particular when they stared to encroach in areas that were under closer control or when he tried through campaigns into their lands to bring these unruly people under his power. One of the most famous battles that included many counts and dukes from all over the Low Countries battled in Ane.

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The battle of Ane 5 August 1227

This most serious conflict erupted in 1227 when after his vassal Rudolf II van Coevorden, supported by a large peasant army from Drenthe had revolted against him; the bishop decided to send a large military expedition to this region.

Bishop Otto II van Lippe was supported by amongst others his counterparts the Bishops of Münster and Cologne, Count Gerard III of Gelre, Count Rudolf van Goor, Count Diederick van Kleve, Count Baldewijn van Bentheim and Lord Gijsbrecht II van Amstel. Near Ane (Hardenberg, Overijssel) they faced a large group of the rather unorganised peasants from Drente (who refused to pay the tithes to the Bishop), the well equipped armies with their heavy armoury got stuck in the morasses and were unable to get out of them and they were merciless killed by the peasants, also the Bishop became their victim. Under the many victims was also Ludeken van Ootmarsum and Florens and Florijn van Bentheim. Gijsbrecht van Amstel and Gerard van Gelre were made prisoners.

There are a lot of similarities between the battle of Ane and the Battle of the Gulden Spurs which took place in 1302 in Flanders.

His successor Bishop Wilbrand van Oldenburg was able to reconquer his lands in 1229. Count Boudewijn van Bentheim is amongst his allies. Eylard Van Bentheim becomes the new count of Coevorden, however this only lasted for a year. During that year he strengthen the castles and fortifications along the boarders (Steenwijk, Vollenhove, Ommen, Uelsen).

Rudolf II was murdered by allies of the bishop Wilbrand,  in Hardenberg in 1232, through the husband of his daughter Hendrik van Borculo, this house became the new Lords of Coevorden. Despite regular conflicts with the bishop, the Lords of  Coevorden were able to largely maintain their independence. Because of the need for money in 1371 the bishop even handed all the rights of Drenthe over to the van Coevordens. They now called themselves Lord of Coevorden and Drenthe.

It wasn’t until 1393 when the powerful bishop Frederik van Blankenstein arrived that the territory was firmly put  back under the control of the bishop. He harnessed the support of some of the neighboring Hanse cities – who all had become worried about the rising power of Coevorden – as well as many of the disgruntled citizens a siege of the castle started in 1395. Lord Reinoud IV had asked for the assistance of the Duke of Gelre but when that didn’t arrive he surrendered. However, it was not until 1402 that  Reinoud fully relinquished control, after that the bishop appointed a bureaucrat in the form of a bailiff to the post. The city received its privileges in 1408.

Another conflict which devastated Oversticht was the election of a new bishop in 1524. Duke Charles of Gelre didn’t agree with the choice and plundered the region. He occupied Coevorden and this  finally meant the end of the secular powers of the bishop, a year later Emperor Charles V was accepted as the  new ruler of Frisia.  Groningen accepted him in 1536 and this also meant the end of the powers of Gelre, they finally were conquered by Charles in 1543.

 

Back to Sticht

Floris V conquered parts of Utrecht in 1270 and when the Bishop with the assistance of amongst others Jan van Amstel and Jan van Kuyc in 1300 tried to recoup his land, he was killed in battle. During that time Drente was temporarily conquered by Gelre. The Bishop also lost several of their vassals who changed allegiance to the Dukes of Gelre and the Count of Holland. In the early parts of the 1290s Floris also played a key role in the ongoing feuds between the Schieringers and the Vetkopers (see above).

Landbrief – proto constitution

Bishop Arnold (of Arnoud) II van Horne (1339-1389) was the son of Willem V van Horne and Elisabeth van Kleef. As mentioned Utrecht was wedged between the Duchies of Gelre and Brabant and the County of Holland, They are were expansionistic and Utrecht was often under pressure.

When the succession wars in Gelre started (See: Gelre and Kleve) Arnold used the opportunity to became involved. He also fought against Holland in 1373-1375. In which also the van Aemstels were involved (See: Lords van Amstel). These wars did cost him a lot of money while it didn’t deliver any positive outcome to the Bishopric.

In order to maintain the support of his citizens he had to give them certain privileges, similar to the Charter of Kortenberg that the Dukes of Brabant had to provide to its citizens. The charter of the bishop is known as the Landbrief from 1375, this confirmed the rights of the people as well as the limitations put upon the bishop (another early form of a proto-constitution).

Some of the members of the nobility covered in our publication are also signatories to the landbrief.

The Burgundian Duke Philips the Good was the first one who was able to gain control over the prince-bishopric of Utrecht. During yet another succession conflict that lasted from 1423 to 1431he successfully got his illegitimate son David appointed by the Pope as the bishop of Utrecht.

In 1483 Maximilian of Austria besieged the city and was able to annex the Sticht with in Burgundian lands.

The secular independence finally ended when Charles V in 1528 annexed the Sticht. It became an Archbishopric in its own right in 1559, but after the Dutch Revolt – in 1580- it became forbidden to practice the catholic faith.